Western Civilization Essays - Nazism, Free Essays, Term Papers

Western Civilization Essays - Nazism, Free Essays, Term Papers Western Civilization Western Civilization Final Exam Tuesday, June 23, 1998 Question: What were the causes of the World War II? Do you believe that the war could have been prevented? Why or Why not? After the fall of the Weimar government, and the rise to power of the National Socialists headed by Adolph Hitler, Germany underwent huge transformations. One of the largest of these was the change in foreign policy. Between the years of 1933 and 1936, while the Nazis began to consolidate their power, Hitlers foreign policy was one of appeasement. Germany did what ever it could to keep peace and tensions low between itself and Great Britain, Italy and the USSR. Germany used this appeasement to keep peace long enough to fully gain control of the country. After 1936, their policy changed. Nazi Germanys foreign policy towards Great Britain was do what ever it takes to keep them happy. Germany wasnt ready to have them as an enemy yet. Hitler felt that the longer he had to prepare for war the better. One of the friendly agreements was the allowing of the British rearmament by Germany. This was the first time that Germany tried to drive a wedge between France and Great Britain. Hitler offered to concede substantial rearmament to Great Britain, while also subtly hinting to both Italy and Great Britain to combine forces against France. Great Britain did not take up Hitlers proposals, but he did not abandon his efforts. In 1934, Germany formally began to talk with Great Britain, and they agreed on the Naval Accords in May. These accords were a smart move by Hitler, because he gained power for Germany while, at the same time, making Great Britain feel more powerful. What the Navel Accords did was set up the amounts of which each country could have a navy. At that time, the British navy was by far the strongest, having twice the amount of its nearest competitor, France. The British fleet controlled the Mediterranean, and Hitler was jealous of this incredible power. Hitler agree in May that the German naval fleet would only build up to 35% of the British fleet. To Britain, this seem like a confession of inferiority, because Germany was admitting to be only 35% of Great Britain. But to Germany, this was a way to rearm themselves to the point of where they were only slightly behind their enemies, the French. Hitler knew that German forces could defeat the French on land, but by sea, they needed to build. But to build a strong navy would anger the British. However, Hitler found a way to do both. The discussions between Germany and Great Britain continue in 1935. In March, Hitler and Von Ribbentrop met with Simon and Eden from Great Britain. At first, Britain wanted desperately to tie down the Germans by having them become a member of the League of Nations. The British wanted any German aggression in the future to be punishable by international law. This way, it would be the worlds problem if the Germans attached France, not just Great Britains and Frances, like in World War I. It was obviously not in Hitler or Germanys best interests to join the League of Nations, but again Germany felt much more freedom in bilateral agreements, ones which only involve two countries. Instead of rejecting the invitation, Germany using very clever diplomatic technique, replied by offering one such bilateral agreement, in which Germany would gain colonial power, along with a sphere of preservation. They also used negotiating power to postpone all binding treaties. While the provisions of the ag reement were never fully carried out it is important to understand that Germany, was not subservient to Great Britain, certainly attempted to reduce tensions, even to the point of an alliance against France. By 1936, Hitler had successfully brought Germany closer to Great Britain using many valuable diplomatic techniques. Great Britian was not the only country to be appeased by Nazi Germany. Italy, too, was an important link in Nazi foreign policy. Hitler knew that Germany could not survive another two and possibly three front war. Hitler was forced to give up one or more of these borders, and gain an alley as well. He chose Italy. Italy had

Biography of Polycarp, Christian Bishop and Martyr

Biography of Polycarp, Christian Bishop and Martyr Polycarp (60-155 CE), also known as Saint Polycarp, was a Christian bishop of Smyrna, the modern city of Izmir in Turkey. He was an Apostolic father, meaning he was a student of one of the original disciples of Christ; and he was known to other important figures in the early Christian church, including Irenaeus, who knew him as a youth, and Ignatius of Antioch, his colleague in the Eastern Catholic church. His surviving works include a Letter to the Philippians, in which he quotes the Apostle Paul, some of which quotes appear in the books of the New Testament and the Apocrypha. Polycarps letter has been used by scholars to identify Paul as the probable writer of those books. Polycarp was tried and executed as a criminal by the Roman empire in 155 C.E., becoming the 12th Christian martyr in Smyrna; the documentation of his martyrdom is an important document in the history of the Christian church. Birth, Education, and Career Polycarp was likely born in Turkey, about 69 C.E. He was a student of the obscure disciple John the Presbyter, sometimes considered to be the same as John the Divine. If John the Presbyter was a separate apostle, he is credited with writing the book of Revelations. As Bishop of Smyrna, Polycarp was a father figure and mentor to Irenaeus of Lyons (ca 120–202 C.E.), who heard his preachings and mentioned him in several writings. Polycarp was a subject of the historian Eusebius (ca 260/265–ca 339/340 C.E.), who wrote about his martyrdom and connections with John. Eusebius is the earliest source separating out John the Presbyter from John the Divine. Irenaeus Letter to the Smyrneans is one of the sources recounting Polycarps martyrdom. Martyrdom of Polycarp The Martyrdom of Polycarp or Martyrium Polycarpi in Greek and abbreviated MPol in the literature, is one of the earliest examples of the martyrdom genre, documents which recount the history and legends surrounding a particular Christian saints arrest and execution. The date of the original story is unknown; the earliest extant version was composed in the early 3rd century. Polycarp was 86 years old when he died, an old man by any standard, and he was the bishop of Smyrna. He was considered a criminal by the Roman state because he was a Christian. He was arrested at a farmhouse and taken to the Roman amphitheater in Smyrna where he was burned and then stabbed to death. Mythic Events of the Martyrdom Supernatural events described in MPol include a dream Polycarp had that he would die in flames (rather than being torn apart by lions), a dream that MPol says was fulfilled. A disembodied voice emanating from the arena as he entered entreated Polycarp to be strong and show yourself a man. When the fire was lit, the flames did not touch his body, and the executioner had to stab him; Polycarps blood gushed out and put out the flames. Finally, when his body was found in the ashes, it was said to have not been roasted but rather baked as bread; and a sweet aroma of frankincense was said to have arisen from the pyre. Some early translations say a dove rose out of the pyre, but there is some debate about the accuracy of the translation. With the MPol and other examples of the genre, martyrdom was being shaped into a highly public sacrificial liturgy: in Christian theology, the Christians were Gods choice for martyrdom who were trained for the sacrifice. Martyrdom as Sacrifice In the Roman empire, criminal trials and executions were highly structured spectacles that dramatized the power of the state. They attracted mobs of people to see the state and criminal square off in a battle that the state was supposed to win. Those spectacles were intended to impress on the minds of the spectators how powerful the Roman Empire was, and what a bad idea it was to attempt to go against them. By turning a criminal case into a martyrdom, the early Christian church emphasized the brutality of the Roman world, and explicitly converted the execution of a criminal into a sacrifice of a holy person. The MPol reports that Polycarp and the writer of the MPol considered Polycarps death a sacrifice to his god in the Old Testament sense. He was bound like a ram taken out of a flock for sacrifice and made an acceptable burnt-offering unto God. Polycarp prayed that he was happy to have been found worthy to be counted among the martyrs, I am a fat and acceptable sacrifice. Epistle of St. Polycarp to the Philippians The only surviving document known to have been written by Polycarp was a letter (or perhaps two letters) he wrote to the Christians at Philippi. The Phillippians had written to Polycarp and asked him to write an address to them, as well as to forward a letter they had written to the church of Antioch, and to send them any epistles of Ignatius he might have. The importance of Polycarps epistle is that it explicitly ties the apostle Paul to several pieces of writing in what would eventually become the New Testament. Polycarp uses expressions such as as Paul teaches to quote several passages which are today found in different books of the New Testament and the Apocrypha, including Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 and 2 Timothy, 1 Peter, and 1 Clement. Sources Ari, Bryen. Martyrdom, Rhetoric, and the Politics of Procedure. Classical Antiquity 33.2 (2014): 243–80. Print.Bacchus, Francis Joseph. St. Polycarp. The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 12. New York City: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. Print.Berding, Kenneth. Polycarp of Smyrnas View of the Authorship of 1 and 2 Timothy. Vigiliae Christianae 53.4 (1999): 349–60. Print.Moss, Candida R. On the Dating of Polycarp: Rethinking the Place of the Martyrdom of Polycarp in the History of Christianity. Early Christianity 1.4 (2010): 539–74. Print.Norris, Frederick W. Ignatius, Polycarp, and I Clement: Walter Bauer Reconsidered. Vigiliae Christianae 30.1 (1976): 23–44. Print.Pionius, Alexander Roberts, and James Donaldson. [English Translation of ]the Martyrdom of Polycarp. Ante-Nicene Fathers. Eds. Roberts, Alexander, James Donaldson and A. Cleveland Coxe. Vol. 1. Buffalo, New Yokr: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1888 Print.Thompson, Leonard L. The Martyrdom of Pol ycarp: Death in the Roman Games. The Journal of Religion 82.1 (2002): 27–52. Print.